If at first the idea is not absurd, then there is no hope for it.

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Welcome to Cassandra: The Definitive Guide. The aim of this book is to help developers and database administrators understand this important new database, explore how it. This repository provides source code samples and notes for the O'Reilly book Cassandra: The Definitive Guide, 2nd Edition. Examples are available for the following chapters: Chapter 8 'Clients' - the com.cassandraguide.clients package contains examples of basic read, write and metadata operations available via the DataStax Java Driver.

Albert Einstein

Welcome to Cassandra: The Definitive Guide. The aim of this book is to help developers and database administrators understand this important database technology. During the course of this book, we will explore how Cassandra compares to traditional relational database management systems, and help you put it to work in your own environment.

If I had asked people what they wanted, they would have said faster horses.

Henry Ford

We ask you to consider a certain model for data, invented by a small team at a company with thousands of employees. It was accessible over a TCP/IP interface and was available from a variety of languages, including Java and web services. This model was difficult at first for all but the most advanced computer scientists to understand, until broader adoption helped make the concepts clearer. Using the database built around this model required learning new terms and thinking about data storage in a different way. But as products sprang up around it, more businesses and government agencies put it to use, in no small part because it was fast—capable of processing thousands of operations a second. The revenue it generated was tremendous.

And then a new model came along.

The new model was threatening, chiefly for two reasons. First, the new model was very different from the old model, which it pointedly controverted. It was threatening because it can be hard to understand something different and new. Ensuing debates can help entrench people stubbornly further in their views—views that might have been largely inherited from the climate in which they learned their craft and the circumstances in which they work. Second, and perhaps more importantly, as a barrier, the new model was threatening because businesses had made considerable investments in the old model and were making lots of money with it. Changing course seemed ridiculous, even impossible.

Of course, we are talking about the Information Management System (IMS) hierarchical database, invented in 1966 at IBM.

IMS was built for use in the Saturn V moon rocket. Its architect was Vern Watts, who dedicated his career to it. Many of us are familiar with IBM’s database DB2. IBM’s wildly popular DB2 database gets its name as the successor to DB1—the product built around the hierarchical data model IMS. IMS was released in 1968, and subsequently enjoyed success in Customer Information Control System (CICS) and other applications. It is still used today.

But in the years following the invention of IMS, the new model, the disruptive model, the threatening model, was the relational database.

In his 1970 paper “A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks,” Dr. Edgar F. Codd, also at advanced his theory of the relational model for data while working at IBM’s San Jose research laboratory.This paper, still available at http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~zives/03f/cis550/codd.pdf, became the foundational work for relational database management systems.

Codd’s work was antithetical to the hierarchical structure of IMS. Understanding and working with a relational database required learning new terms, including “relations,” “tuples,” and “normal form,” all of which must have sounded very strange indeed to users of IMS. It presented certain key advantages over its predecessor, such as the ability to express complex relationships between multiple entities, well beyond what could be represented by hierarchical databases.

While these ideas and their application have evolved in four decades, the relational database still is clearly one of the most successful software applications in history. It’s used in the form of Microsoft Access in sole proprietorships, and in giant multinational corporations with clusters of hundreds of finely tuned instances representing multi-terabyte data warehouses. Relational databases store invoices, customer records, product catalogues, accounting ledgers, user authentication schemes—the very world, it might appear. There is no question that the relational database is a key facet of the modern technology and business landscape, and one that will be with us in its various forms for many years to come, as will IMS in its various forms. The relational model presented an alternative to IMS, and each has its uses.

So the short answer to the question, “What’s wrong with relational databases?” is “Nothing.”

There is, however, a rather longer answer, which says that every once in a while an idea is born that ostensibly changes things, and engenders a revolution of sorts. And yet, in another way, such revolutions, viewed structurally, are simply history’s business as usual. IMS, RDBMSs, NoSQL. The horse, the car, the plane. They each build on prior art, they each attempt to solve certain problems, and so they’re each good at certain things—and less good at others. They each coexist, even now.

So let’s examine for a moment why, at this point, we might consider an alternative to the relational database, just as Codd himself four decades ago looked at the Information Management System and thought that maybe it wasn’t the only legitimate way of organizing information and solving data problems, and that maybe, for certain problems, it might prove fruitful to consider an alternative.

We encounter scalability problems when our relational applications become successful and usage goes up. Joins are inherent in any relatively normalized relational database of even modest size, and joins can be slow. The way that databases gain consistency is typically through the use of transactions, which require locking some portion of the database so it’s not available to other clients. This can become untenable under very heavy loads, as the locks mean that competing users start queuing up, waiting for their turn to read or write the data.

We typically address these problems in one or more of the following ways, sometimes in this order:

• Throw hardware at the problem by adding more memory, adding faster processors, and upgrading disks. This is known as vertical scaling. This can relieve you for a time.

• When the problems arise again, the answer appears to be similar: now that one box is maxed out, you add hardware in the form of additional boxes in a database cluster. Now you have the problem of data replication and consistency during regular usage and in failover scenarios. You didn’t have that problem before.

• Now we need to update the configuration of the database management system. This might mean optimizing the channels the database uses to write to the underlying filesystem. We turn off logging or journaling, which frequently is not a desirable (or, depending on your situation, legal) option.

• Having put what attention we could into the database system, we turn to our application. We try to improve our indexes. We optimize the queries. But presumably at this scale we weren’t wholly ignorant of index and query optimization, and already had them in pretty good shape. So this becomes a painful process of picking through the data access code to find any opportunities for fine-tuning. This might include reducing or reorganizing joins, throwing out resource-intensive features such as XML processing within a stored procedure, and so forth. Of course, presumably we were doing that XML processing for a reason, so if we have to do it somewhere, we move that problem to the application layer, hoping to solve it there and crossing our fingers that we don’t break something else in the meantime.

• We employ a caching layer. For larger systems, this might include distributed caches such as memcached, Redis, Riak, EHCache, or other related products. Now we have a consistency problem between updates in the cache and updates in the database, which is exacerbated over a cluster.

• We turn our attention to the database again and decide that, now that the application is built and we understand the primary query paths, we can duplicate some of the data to make it look more like the queries that access it. This process, called denormalization, is antithetical to the five normal forms that characterize the relational model, and violates Codd’s 12 Rules for relational data. We remind ourselves that we live in this world, and not in some theoretical cloud, and then undertake to do what we must to make the application start responding at acceptable levels again, even if it’s no longer “pure.”

Codd provided a list of 12 rules (there are actually 13, numbered 0 to 12) formalizing his definition of the relational model as a response to the divergence of commercial databases from his original concepts. Codd introduced his rules in a pair of articles in CompuWorld magazine in October 1985, and formalized them in the second edition of his book The Relational Model for Database Management, which is now out of print.

This likely sounds familiar to you. At web scale, engineers may legitimately ponder whether this situation isn’t similar to Henry Ford’s assertion that at a certain point, it’s not simply a faster horse that you want. And they’ve done some impressive, interesting work.

We must therefore begin here in recognition that the relational model is simply a model. That is, it’s intended to be a useful way of looking at the world, applicable to certain problems. It does not purport to be exhaustive, closing the case on all other ways of representing data, never again to be examined, leaving no room for alternatives. If we take the long view of history, Dr. Codd’s model was a rather disruptive one in its time. It was new, with strange new vocabulary and terms such as “tuples”—familiar words used in a new and different manner. The relational model was held up to suspicion, and doubtless suffered its vehement detractors. It encountered opposition even in the form of Dr. Codd’s own employer, IBM, which had a very lucrative product set around IMS and didn’t need a young upstart cutting into its pie.

But the relational model now arguably enjoys the best seat in the house within the data world. SQL is widely supported and well understood. It is taught in introductory university courses. There are open source databases that come installed and ready to use with a $4.95 monthly web hosting plan. Cloud-based Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) providers such as Amazon Web Services, Google Cloud Platform, Rackspace, and Microsoft Azure provide relational database access as a service, including automated monitoring and maintenance features. Often the database we end up using is dictated to us by architectural standards within our organization. Even absent such standards, it’s prudent to learn whatever your organization already has for a database platform. Our colleagues in development and infrastructure have considerable hard-won knowledge.

If by nothing more than osmosis (or inertia), we have learned over the years that a relational database is a one-size-fits-all solution.

So perhaps a better question is not, “What’s wrong with relational databases?” but rather, “What problem do you have?”

That is, you want to ensure that your solution matches the problem that you have. There are certain problems that relational databases solve very well. But the explosion of the Web, and in particular social networks, means a corresponding explosion in the sheer volume of data we must deal with. When Tim Berners-Lee first worked on the Web in the early 1990s, it was for the purpose of exchanging scientific documents between PhDs at a physics laboratory. Now, of course, the Web has become so ubiquitous that it’s used by everyone, from those same scientists to legions of five-year-olds exchanging emoticons about kittens. That means in part that it must support enormous volumes of data; the fact that it does stands as a monument to the ingenious architecture of the Web.

But some of this infrastructure is starting to bend under the weight.

Though you are likely familiar with them, let’s briefly turn our attention to some of the foundational concepts in relational databases. This will give us a basis on which to consider more recent advances in thought around the trade-offs inherent in distributed data systems, especially very large distributed data systems, such as those that are required at web scale.

RDBMSs: The Awesome and the Not-So-Much

There are many reasons that the relational database has become so overwhelmingly popular over the last four decades. An important one is the Structured Query Language (SQL), which is feature-rich and uses a simple, declarative syntax. SQL was first officially adopted as an ANSI standard in 1986; since that time, it’s gone through several revisions and has also been extended with vendor proprietary syntax such as Microsoft’s T-SQL and Oracle’s PL/SQL to provide additional implementation-specific features.

SQL is powerful for a variety of reasons. It allows the user to represent complex relationships with the data, using statements that form the Data Manipulation Language (DML) to insert, select, update, delete, truncate, and merge data. You can perform a rich variety of operations using functions based on relational algebra to find a maximum or minimum value in a set, for example, or to filter and order results. SQL statements support grouping aggregate values and executing summary functions. SQL provides a means of directly creating, altering, and dropping schema structures at runtime using Data Definition Language (DDL). SQL also allows you to grant and revoke rights for users and groups of users using the same syntax.

SQL is easy to use. The basic syntax can be learned quickly, and conceptually SQL and RDBMSs offer a low barrier to entry. Junior developers can become proficient readily, and as is often the case in an industry beset by rapid changes, tight deadlines, and exploding budgets, ease of use can be very important. And it’s not just the syntax that’s easy to use; there are many robust tools that include intuitive graphical interfaces for viewing and working with your database.

In part because it’s a standard, SQL allows you to easily integrate your RDBMS with a wide variety of systems. All you need is a driver for your application language, and you’re off to the races in a very portable way. If you decide to change your application implementation language (or your RDBMS vendor), you can often do that painlessly, assuming you haven’t backed yourself into a corner using lots of proprietary extensions.

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Transactions, ACID-ity, and two-phase commit

In addition to the features mentioned already, RDBMSs and SQL also support transactions. A key feature of transactions is that they execute virtually at first, allowing the programmer to undo (using rollback) any changes that may have gone awry during execution; if all has gone well, the transaction can be reliably committed. As Jim Gray puts it, a transaction is “a transformation of state” that has the ACID properties (see “The Transaction Concept: Virtues and Limitations”).

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ACID is an acronym for Atomic, Consistent, Isolated, Durable, which are the gauges we can use to assess thata transaction has executed properly and that it was successful:

Atomic means “all or nothing”; that is, when a statement is executed, every update within the transaction must succeed in order to be called successful. There is no partial failure where one update was successful and another related update failed. The common example here is with monetary transfers at an ATM: the transfer requires subtracting money from one account and adding it to another account. This operation cannot be subdivided; they must both succeed.

Consistent means that data moves from one correct state to another correct state, with no possibility that readers could view different values that don’t make sense together. For example, if a transaction attempts to delete a customer and her order history, it cannot leave order rows that reference the deleted customer’s primary key; this is an inconsistent state that would cause errors if someone tried to read those order records.

Isolated means that transactions executing concurrently will not become entangled with each other; they each execute in their own space. That is, if two different transactions attempt to modify the same data at the same time, then one of them will have to wait for the other to complete.

Once a transaction has succeeded, the changes will not be lost. This doesn’t imply another transaction won’t later modify the same data; it just means that writers can be confident that the changes are available for the next transaction to work with as necessary.

The debate about support for transactions comes up very quickly as a sore spot in conversations around non-relational data stores, so let’s take a moment to revisit what this really means. On the surface, ACID properties seem so obviously desirable as to not even merit conversation. Presumably no one who runs a database would suggest that data updates don’t have to endure for some length of time; that’s the very point of making updates—that they’re there for others to read. However, a more subtle examination might lead us to want to find a way to tune these properties a bit and control them slightly. There is, as they say, no free lunch on the Internet, and once we see how we’re paying for our transactions, we may start to wonder whether there’s an alternative.

Transactions become difficult under heavy load. When you first attempt to horizontally scale a relational database, making it distributed, you must now account for distributed transactions, where the transaction isn’t simply operating inside a single table or a single database, but is spread across multiple systems. In order to continue to honor the ACID properties of transactions, you now need a transaction manager to orchestrate across the multiple nodes.

In order to account for successful completion across multiple hosts, the idea of a two-phase commit (sometimes referred to as “2PC”) is introduced. But then, because two-phase commit locks all associated resources, it is useful only for operations that can complete very quickly. Although it may often be the case that your distributed operations can complete in sub-second time, it is certainly not always the case. Some use cases require coordination between multiple hosts that you may not control yourself. Operations coordinating several different but related activities can take hours to update.

Two-phase commit blocks; that is, clients (“competing consumers”) must wait for a prior transaction to finish before they can access the blocked resource. The protocol will wait for a node to respond, even if it has died. It’s possible to avoid waiting forever in this event, because a timeout can be set that allows the transaction coordinator node to decide that the node isn’t going to respond and that it should abort the transaction. However, an infinite loop is still possible with 2PC; that’s because a node can send a message to the transaction coordinator node agreeing that it’s OK for the coordinator to commit the entire transaction. The node will then wait for the coordinator to send a commit response (or a rollback response if, say, a different node can’t commit); if the coordinator is down in this scenario, that node conceivably will wait forever.

So in order to account for these shortcomings in two-phase commit of distributed transactions, the database world turned to the idea of compensation. Compensation, often used in web services, means in simple terms that the operation is immediately committed, and then in the event that some error is reported, a new operation is invoked to restore proper state.

There are a few basic, well-known patterns for compensatory action that architects frequently have to consider as an alternative to two-phase commit. These include writing off the transaction if it fails, deciding to discard erroneous transactions and reconciling later. Another alternative is to retry failed operations later on notification. In a reservation system or a stock sales ticker, these are not likely to meet your requirements. For other kinds of applications, such as billing or ticketing applications, this can be acceptable.

Gregor Hohpe, a Google architect, wrote a wonderful and often-cited blog entry called “Starbucks Does Not Use Two-Phase Commit”. It shows in real-world terms how difficult it is to scale two-phase commit and highlights some of the alternatives that are mentioned here. It’s an easy, fun, and enlightening read.

The problems that 2PC introduces for application developers include loss of availability and higher latency during partial failures. Neither of these is desirable. So once you’ve had the good fortune of being successful enough to necessitate scaling your database past a single machine, you now have to figure out how to handle transactions across multiple machines and still make the ACID properties apply. Whether you have 10 or 100 or 1,000 database machines, atomicity is still required in transactions as if you were working on a single node. But it’s now a much, much bigger pill to swallow.

Schema

One often-lauded feature of relational database systems is the rich schemas they afford. You can represent your domain objects in a relational model. A whole industry has sprung up around (expensive) tools such as the CA ERWin Data Modeler to support this effort. In order to create a properly normalized schema, however, you are forced to create tables that don’t exist as business objects in your domain. For example, a schema for a university database might require a “student” table and a “course” table. But because of the “many-to-many” relationship here (one student can take many courses at the same time, and one course has many students at the same time), you have to create a join table. This pollutes a pristine data model, where we’d prefer to just have students and courses. It also forces us to create more complex SQL statements to join these tables together. The join statements, in turn, can be slow.

Again, in a system of modest size, this isn’t much of a problem. But complex queries and multiple joins can become burdensomely slow once you have a large number of rows in many tables to handle.

Finally, not all schemas map well to the relational model. One type of system that has risen in popularity in the last decade is the complex event processing system, which represents state changes in a very fast stream. It’s often useful to contextualize events at runtime against other events that might be related in order to infer some conclusion to support business decision making. Although event streams could be represented in terms of a relational database, it is an uncomfortable stretch.

And if you’re an application developer, you’ll no doubt be familiar with the many object-relational mapping (ORM) frameworks that have sprung up in recent years to help ease the difficulty in mapping application objects to a relational model. Again, for small systems, ORM can be a relief. But it also introduces new problems of its own, such as extended memory requirements, and it often pollutes the application code with increasingly unwieldy mapping code. Here’s an example of a Java method using Hibernate to “ease the burden” of having to write the SQL code:

Is it certain that we’ve done anything but move the problem here? Of course, with some systems, such as those that make extensive use of document exchange, as with services or XML-based applications, there are not always clear mappings to a relational database. This exacerbates the problem.

Sharding and shared-nothing architecture

If you can’t split it, you can’t scale it.

Randy Shoup, Distinguished Architect, eBay

Another way to attempt to scale a relational database is to introduce sharding to your architecture. This has been used to good effect at large websites such as eBay, which supports billions of SQL queries a day, and in other modern web applications. The idea here is that you split the data so that instead of hosting all of it on a single server or replicating all of the data on all of the servers in a cluster, you divide up portions of the data horizontally and host them each separately.

For example, consider a large customer table in a relational database. The least disruptive thing (for the programming staff, anyway) is to vertically scale by adding CPU, adding memory, and getting faster hard drives, but if you continue to be successful and add more customers, at some point (perhaps into the tens of millions of rows), you’ll likely have to start thinking about how you can add more machines. When you do so, do you just copy the data so that all of the machines have it? Or do you instead divide up that single customer table so that each database has only some of the records, with their order preserved? Then, when clients execute queries, they put load only on the machine that has the record they’re looking for, with no load on the other machines.

It seems clear that in order to shard, you need to find a good key by which to order your records. For example, you could divide your customer records across 26 machines, one for each letter of the alphabet, with each hosting only the records for customers whose last names start with that particular letter. It’s likely this is not a good strategy, however—there probably aren’t many last names that begin with “Q” or “Z,” so those machines will sit idle while the “J,” “M,” and “S” machines spike. You could shard according to something numeric, like phone number, “member since” date, or the name of the customer’s state. It all depends on how your specific data is likely to be distributed.

There are three basic strategies for determining shard structure:

This is the approach taken by Randy Shoup, Distinguished Architect at eBay, who in 2006 helped bring the site’s architecture into maturity to support many billions of queries per day. Using this strategy, the data is split not by dividing records in a single table (as in the customer example discussed earlier), but rather by splitting into separate databases the features that don’t overlap with each other very much. For example, at eBay, the users are in one shard, and the items for sale are in another. At Flixster, movie ratings are in one shard and comments are in another. This approach depends on understanding your domain so that you can segment data cleanly.

In this approach, you find a key in your data that will evenly distribute it across shards. So instead of simply storing one letter of the alphabet for each server as in the (naive and improper) earlier example, you use a one-way hash on a key data element and distribute data across machines according to the hash. It is common in this strategy to find time-based or numeric keys to hash on.

In this approach, one of the nodes in the cluster acts as a “yellow pages” directory and looks up which node has the data you’re trying to access. This has two obvious disadvantages. The first is that you’ll take a performance hit every time you have to go through the lookup table as an additional hop. The second is that the lookup table not only becomes a bottleneck, but a single point of failure.

Sharding can minimize contention depending on your strategy and allows you not just to scale horizontally, but then to scale more precisely, as you can add power to the particular shards that need it.

Sharding could be termed a kind of “shared-nothing” architecture that’s specific to databases. A shared-nothing architecture is one in which there is no centralized (shared) state, but each node in a distributed system is independent, so there is no client contention for shared resources. The term was first coined by Michael Stonebraker at the University of California at Berkeley in his 1986 paper “The Case for Shared Nothing.”

Shared-nothing architecture was more recently popularized by Google, which has written systems such as its Bigtable database and its MapReduce implementation that do not share state, and are therefore capable of near-infinite scaling. The Cassandra database is a shared-nothing architecture, as it has no central controller and no notion of master/slave; all of its nodes are the same.

You can read the 1986 paper “The Case for Shared Nothing” online at http://db.cs.berkeley.edu/papers/hpts85-nothing.pdf. It’s only a few pages. If you take a look, you’ll see that many of the features of shared-nothing distributed data architecture, such as ease of high availability and the ability to scale to a very large number of machines, are the very things that Cassandra excels at.

MongoDB also provides auto-sharding capabilities to manage failover and node balancing. That many non-relational databases offer this automatically and out of the box is very handy; creating and maintaining custom data shards by hand is a wicked proposition. It’s good to understand sharding in terms of data architecture in general, but especially in terms of Cassandra more specifically, as it can take an approach similar to key-based sharding to distribute data across nodes, but does so automatically.

In summary, relational databases are very good at solving certain data storage problems, but because of their focus, they also can create problems of their own when it’s time to scale. Then, you often need to find a way to get rid of your joins, which means denormalizing the data, which means maintaining multiple copies of data and seriously disrupting your design, both in the database and in your application. Further, you almost certainly need to find a way around distributed transactions, which will quickly become a bottleneck. These compensatory actions are not directly supported in any but the most expensive RDBMSs. And even if you can write such a huge check, you still need to carefully choose partitioning keys to the point where you can never entirely ignore the limitation.

Perhaps more importantly, as we see some of the limitations of RDBMSs and consequently some of the strategies that architects have used to mitigate their scaling issues, a picture slowly starts to emerge. It’s a picture that makes some NoSQL solutions seem perhaps less radical and less scary than we may have thought at first, and more like a natural expression and encapsulation of some of the work that was already being done to manage very large databases.

Because of some of the inherent design decisions in RDBMSs, it is not always as easy to scale as some other, more recent possibilities that take the structure of the Web into consideration. However, it’s not only the structure of the Web we need to consider, but also its phenomenal growth, because as more and more data becomes available, we need architectures that allow our organizations to take advantage of this data in near real time to support decision making and to offer new and more powerful features and capabilities to our customers.

It has been said, though it is hard to verify, that the 17th-century English poet John Milton had actually read every published book on the face of the earth. Milton knew many languages (he was even learning Navajo at the time of his death), and given that the total number of published books at that time was in the thousands, this would have been possible. The size of the world’s data stores have grown somewhat since then.

With the rapid growth in the Web, there is great variety to the kinds of data that need to be stored, processed, and queried, and some variety to the businesses that use such data. Consider not only customer data at familiar retailers or suppliers, and not only digital video content, but also the required move to digital television and the explosive growth of email, messaging, mobile phones, RFID, Voice Over IP (VoIP) usage, and the Internet of Things (IoT). As we have departed from physical consumer media storage, companies that provide content—and the third-party value-add businesses built around them—require very scalable data solutions. Consider too that as a typical business application developer or database administrator, we may be used to thinking of relational databases as the center of our universe. You might then be surprised to learn that within corporations, around 80% of data is unstructured.

The recent interest in non-relational databases reflects the growing sense of need in the software development community for web scale data solutions. The term “NoSQL” began gaining popularity around 2009 as a shorthand way of describing these databases. The term has historically been the subject of much debate, but a consensus has emerged that the term refers to non-relational databases that support “not only SQL” semantics.

Various experts have attempted to organize these databases in a few broad categories; we’ll examine a few of the most common:

In a key-value store, the data items are keys that have a set of attributes. All data relevant to a key is stored with the key; data is frequently duplicated. Popular key-value stores include Amazon’s Dynamo DB, Riak, and Voldemort. Additionally, many popular caching technologies act as key-value stores, including Oracle Coherence, Redis, and MemcacheD.

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Column stores are also frequently known as wide-column stores. Google’s Bigtable served as the inspiration for implementations including Cassandra, Hypertable, and Apache Hadoop’s HBase.

The basic unit of storage in a document database is the complete document, often stored in a format such as JSON, XML, or YAML. Popular document stores include MongoDB and CouchDB.

Graph databases represent data as a graph—a network of nodes and edges that connect the nodes. Both nodes and edges can have properties. Because they give heightened importance to relationships, graph databases such as FlockDB, Neo4J, and Polyglot have proven popular for building social networking and semantic web applications.

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Object databases store data not in terms of relations and columns and rows, but in terms of the objects themselves, making it straightforward to use the database from an object-oriented application. Object databases such as db4o and InterSystems Caché allow you to avoid techniques like stored procedures and object-relational mapping (ORM) tools.

XML databases are a special form of document databases, optimized specifically for working with XML. So-called “XML native” databases include Tamino from Software AG and eXist.

For a comprehensive list of NoSQL databases, see the site http://nosql-database.org.

There is wide variety in the goals and features of these databases, but they tend to share a set of common characteristics. The most obvious of these is implied by the name NoSQL—these databases support data models, data definition languages (DDLs), and interfaces beyond the standard SQL available in popular relational databases. In addition, these databases are typically distributed systems without centralized control. They emphasize horizontal scalability and high availability, in some cases at the cost of strong consistency and ACID semantics. They tend to support rapid development and deployment. They take flexible approaches to schema definition, in some cases not requiring any schema to be defined up front. They provide support for Big Data and analytics use cases.

Over the past several years, there have been a large number of open source and commercial offerings in the NoSQL space. The adoption and quality of these have varied widely, but leaders have emerged in the categories just discussed, and many have become mature technologies with large installation bases and commercial support. We’re happy to report that Cassandra is one of those technologies, as we’ll dig into more in the next chapter.

The relational model has served the software industry well over the past four decades, but the level of availability and scalability required for modern applications has stretched relational database technology to the breaking point.

The intention of this book is not to convince you by clever argument to adopt a non-relational database such as Apache Cassandra. It is only our intention to present what Cassandra can do and how it does it so that you can make an informed decision and get started working with it in practical ways if you find it applies.

Perhaps the ultimate question, then, is not “What’s wrong with relational databases?” but rather, “What kinds of things would I do with data if it wasn’t a problem?” In a world now working at web scale and looking to the future, Apache Cassandra might be one part of the answer.

This repository provides source code samples and notes for the O'Reilly bookCassandra: The Definitive Guide, 2nd Edition.

Examples are available for the following chapters:

• Chapter 8 'Clients' - the com.cassandraguide.clients package containsexamples of basic read, write and metadata operations available via theDataStax Java Driver
• Chapter 9 'Reading and writing' - the com.cassandraguide.readwritepackage contains more advanced examples including batches, transactions and deletes
• Chapter 12 'Performance Tuning' - the com.cassandraguide.performancepackage contains a query tracing example
• Chapter 14 'Deploying and Integrating' - the com.cassandraguide.integrationpackage contains an example using the DataStax Spark Cassandra Connector

Schema (CQL), cassandra-stress, and a sample .csv file for bulk import are available under resources.

These examples are not intended to represent a complete application, but are more of the bare minimum code required toaccess various Cassandra features . As such, the examples are useful for cut and paste into your applications accordingto the Apache license below. See the Reservation Servicerepository for a more well rounded example.

Comments, improvements and feedback are welcome.

Copyright 2016 Jeff Carpenter

Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the 'License');you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.You may obtain a copy of the License at

Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, softwaredistributed under the License is distributed on an 'AS IS' BASIS,WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.See the License for the specific language governing permissions andlimitations under the License.